Closing with opposing views

Willful and conscious use of imagination, on the other hand, finds favorable or at least tolerant mentions in Orthodox works influenced by Western spirituality. Theophan the Recluse (1815-1894), for example, who is usually seen as somewhat more tolerant of Western spirituality than is Ignatii Bryanchaninov (with whom Theophan entered into polemic on more than one occasion), wrote that imagining the Lord is acceptable, “When you contemplate the Divine, then you may imagine the Lord however you want,” but he adds, “During prayer, you should not hold [in your mind] any images… If you allow images then there is a danger to start praying to a dream.”

Another example of Western influence may be seen in the works of Nicodemos of the Holy Mountain (1749-1809), one of the compilers of the Philokalia. His famous work, which was printed in English under the title Unseen Warfare, was based on Combattimento Spirituale by a Roman Catholic priest Lorenzo Scupoli, while Nicodemos’ Spiritual Exercises was based on Esercizii Spirituali by Piramonti.

Nicodemos, in his Handbook of Spiritual Counsel, warns about the dangers of using imagination, but concedes, “Finally, it is permissible, when fighting against certain inappropriate and evil imaginations presented by the enemy, to use other appropriate and virtuous imaginations.”

The wisdom of such advice was questioned by Ignatii Bryanchaninov who suggested that one of his correspondents stop reading the Unseen Warfare (which had recently been translated into Russian by Theophan the Recluse). While we may never know whether the saint’s correspondent heeded the advice, what is important here is the very fact that even works by respected Orthodox authors, such as Nicodemos, may be questioned without much hesitation due to the dissonance they create with the strictly Orthodox path of prayer.

Summary

While differences in opinion of Orthodox authors, such as Ignatii Bryanchaninov and Theophan the Recluse, exist, the overall attitude of the Orthodox Tradition forbids the use of mental imagery in prayer. Even though the adepts on the higher rungs of the spiritual ladder are reported to have visions and revelations, the general advice to those who have not achieved perfection is to reject or at least ignore all and any visions and apparitions as potentially dangerous. The basis and the founding principle of Orthodox prayer is seen in repentance and humility, rather than in ecstasy and “favors.”

With respect to the conscious use of imagination during prayer, the prohibition of the Orthodox Tradition is equally strong. Some use of imagination is viewed by some authors as permissible outside of prayer, but all the Orthodox sources known to me unanimously speak against the conscious and willful use of imagination during prayer.

Thus, there appears to be a clear difference in the area of the use of mental imagery between Roman Catholic prayer as exemplified by Teresa of Avila, Angela of Foligno, and Ignatius of Loyola on the one hand, and the Orthodox tradition of prayer as presented by saints Ignatii Bryanchaninov, Nilus and Gregory of Sinai, John Climacus, and others.

While some of the theologians quoted above may have written in part in reaction to Western mystical experience, others—Macarius (4th century), Nilus (5th century), John (6th century), Isaac (7th century), and Simeon the New Theologian (10-11th centuries)—constitute an earlier tradition that predates the lives of Teresa of Avila and Ignatius of Loyola by several centuries. Thus, the formative influence of this patristic tradition can be traced through the writings of later Orthodox authors.

Western American Diocese Lenten Pastoral Retreat

[Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia]
17 March 2009